Active Reading

By the time we reach middle and high school, what we learn is increasingly built on what we’ve learned before, reliant on the scaffolding of connections our brains have been constructing for us since we were crawling across colorful living-room carpets. But these connections, clusters of experience and information that help us make sense of the world, are still developing all the time — and the more that students can consciously access these categories of information and experience as they absorb new knowledge and master new tasks, the more confident and creative they will become. One of Smarten Up’s core messages to students is that learning itself is a learnable process: that the skill of being a student can be developed through a set of reflective habits and creative practices. 

Let’s consider the best habits for reading, a skill whose importance in the life of a student is hard to overstate. All of the work that students have done in elementary school to master the technical building blocks of reading fluency pays off as reading becomes a critical skill across disciplines, from biology to history, and from foreign languages to English literature. By this time, the decoding process has become more automatic, and students can put a larger share of their brainpower toward constructing meaning, analyzing connections, and processing information. While many of us remember ‘learning to read’ as young children, it is at this stage in our academic careers that we learn to read critically and deeply. 

There are concrete steps that will improve students’ ability to go past knowledge into understanding — this active reading checklist is a good place to start, with habits for before, during, and after reading. This is also where reflecting on the way we read different types of texts can be useful.  There is a clear difference between reading and writing poetry, and reading biographies of historical figures. Students should be able to approach each task with a strategy that fits its specific needs, while also recognizing the connections between distinct tasks and subject areas so that they’re not reinventing the wheel every time they approach a reading or writing assignment. One starting place is to ask: How does this content relate to what I already know? Or: how does this assignment resemble other tasks I’ve tackled in the past?

When students consider these questions, they activate prior knowledge that will shape how they understand the new content. Students should also consider, as they read, other connections they can activate to enrich the perspective they’re bringing to the text, and make the information stickier in their memory. Consider text-to-text, text-to-self, and text-to-world connections. How does Hamlet’s relationship with his uncle compare to the bonds in your own extended family? Hopefully, not too closely! Can you think of any links to the often melodramatic history of royal households in medieval Europe, or the family politics in your favorite television series? What songs would you put on a moody Hamlet playlist? Ultimately, the takeaway is simple: the more that we bring with us to the reading process, the more we get out of it.

Understanding Anxiety in Education

We’ve all felt nervous before a test or big performance. Sometimes you feel butterflies in your stomach, sweaty palms, or a pounding heart. You might also experience a moment of total panic as the test is handed out. But for most of us, once the test begins, we are able to use that burst of adrenaline to focus our thoughts and perform our best. For others, though, testing anxiety can be crippling.

Key Takeaways

• It’s appropriate to have a little bit of anxiety before one has to do something big and important. Those feelings serve to focus attention and organize one’s thinking. However, if someone experiences intense physical symptoms of anxiety such as chest pain or a panic attack, she will not be able to function adequately during a test (or beyond). When anxiety interferes with performance in this way, it is important to seek out the help of a professional.

• A diagnostic assessment will help to identify the cause of anxiety. Common causes of anxiety around testing include:

  • Generalized anxiety, which is when a person feels anxious most of the time. She isn’t anxious about specific things, but rather usually feels these sorts of feelings with varying levels of intensity. People with generalized anxiety might also experience heightened anxiety before a test.

  • Obsessive compulsive disorder can also be a source of test anxiety. If a person will only accept a perfect score on an assessment, for example, she might struggle to perform under this pressure for perfection.

  • Post-traumatic stress disorder is another potential source of test anxiety for students. Sometimes the trauma is a result of an experience in the classroom or with a teacher, and other times the trauma is related to expectations and pressure from parents.

  • ADHD can also create feelings of anxiety around testing for students. Difficulties with attention and focus in class can impact a student’s ability to process and understand classroom material. Plus, challenges with executive function skills often make it hard for students to study effectively. For some, this leads to testing anxiety, especially as academic demands become greater in high school and college.

  • And for others, test anxiety is isolated and more specific!

• During a diagnostic, a doctor will want to learn about the following:

  • The child’s developmental history and family history. If there is a genetic pattern of learning disabilities or anxiety, a child is at much greater risk for developing anxiety.

  • A family’s attitude about academics and achievement. If parents have unrealistic expectations for their child, she is at greater risk for anxiety as well.

  • A child’s peer group. If a child’s social circle is filled with high achievers, she can sometimes become anxious about acceptance. If that student isn’t able to keep up academically, she might worry about losing her friends which can create anxiety around testing.

  • Study habits. It is helpful to know more about how involved parents are, how independently students work, and what their approach to preparation and test taking looks like.

  • How the child processes information. By doing neuropsychological testing, a doctor can identify strengths and challenges in a child’s learning profile, including a potential learning or thinking difference. This can and should be provided by the school distract at no cost to the family by law because of IDEA.

• The results of this diagnostic will determine the best course of treatment. And if a child has specific anxiety around testing, there are a range of approaches for treatment.

  • A family conversation about academic expectations can go a long way. It is important to keep in mind, though, that these discussions sometimes go best with the help of a professional. Children, especially teens, can have a hard time being honest with parents around this sensitive topic; and parents might struggle to control their emotions during these conversations. A doctor can help to make sure that this important discussion is a productive one for the whole family!

  • Cognitive behavioral therapy is a very effective treatment for testing anxiety. It is specific and targeted, and can help to adjust a child’s thinking about test taking.

  • Exposure response prevention is a common treatment for obsessive compulsive disorder that can also be applied to test taking anxiety. It helps to address irrational fears or superstitions a child might have around assessments.

  • There are also medications that can be used on an as-needed basis to treat performance anxiety. These medications are not addictive nor are they drugs of abuse. They damper the physical signs of anxiety (increased heart rate, sweaty palms, etc.), which in turn helps to calm the anxious thoughts one might otherwise have.

  • Breathing, mindfulness, and meditation are also very helpful for calming anxiety. These are holistic treatments that are incredibly effective and are sure to improve the overall wellbeing of any child!

• Lastly, it’s important to normalize anxiety. These are feelings that all of us experience at one time or another. They are normal, and it is important for kids to understand that. Once they do, they can begin their journey to conquering those emotions!

Getting in the Zone (of Proximal Development)

It’s a challenge for teachers to keep track of all of their students’ exact levels of performance at all times. Still, it’s important information for teachers to have in order to deliver appropriate instruction. Knowing students’ levels helps teachers determine their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD refers to a student’s academic “sweet spot” in which a task is challenging enough, but not too challenging. Psychologist Lev Vygotsky coined the term to describe the difference between what students are able to do with independence, and what they cannot yet do at all. It is critical that students spend a significant amount of time in this zone each day in order to make academic prorgress.

Scaffolding within the Zone

In order to make sure students are working within their ZPD, teachers and tutors provide scaffolds. Scaffolds are activities, tools, or other measures put in place to ensure that a student is working toward a goal or performance task at an appropriate pace and with appropriate levels of guidance. Scaffolding for students allows them to take appropriately sized steps toward completing a task or reaching an objective.

Examples of scaffolding:

Math: Scaffolds in math provide students with smaller goals along their path to the larger goal. Young students learning fractions might need independent work scaffolded. For example, this might look like smaller, more manageable steps toward building a complex fraction. Other students may not need these scaffolds and go straight to building the complex fraction.

In middle school geometry, some students may need scaffolds as they are learning how to measure angles. Some students may quickly be able to use a protractor to measure the size of an angle. Others may need to spend a bit more time identifying 90-degree angles or visually determining whether the angle is acute or obtuse before measuring, etc.

ELA: Literacy scaffolds allow students to be successful with a text or task by providing them with extra steps or tools to support their learning. Some students will benefit from vocabulary definitions given ahead of time. Others may need to pause periodically to annotate, sketch, or otherwise process what they’ve read so far before moving on. Some may simply want to follow along in their text with an audiobook. All of these scaffolding strategies are likely to help some students in a class, but not all. It’s important for teachers to know individual needs and what will help each student be most successful.

Another common example of how ZPD can apply to reading is through guided reading groups. Students read books at their independent reading level that they are able to manage with virtually no teacher support. Guided reading groups should be facilitated using books that are slightly more challenging than those they can handle independently. This is usually one reading level above their independent level, but not always.

ZPD and Group Work

The guidance that students receive when working within their ZPD doesn't always need to come from the teacher. One of the most effective ways of providing students with the support they need to progress is to partner them with a peer. Students have the most potential for growth when they have been properly coached in how to work productively with peers. It’s possible for students to learn even more from each other than from their teachers, and it benefits all parties involved. Student working in their ZPD benefits from working with a more capable peer. The more advanced students benefit from helping their classmate understand something in a different way. They get to practice their leadership skills, communication skills, and further solidify their own understanding. Plus, putting students together frees the teacher up to work with the students who need the most attention. It’s a win-win-win!

Beating the Stress Test

This year, I’m hearing that many students have finals, cumulative exams, or essays coming due in the 2-4 weeks after break. Some have asked: should I be studying over the holidays? Each case is different, but I always emphasize the importance of taking a break to destress—advice that’s easier to give if I’m confident they have been engaged throughout the class so far.

Testing and finals are understandably stressful for many students—but this stress can also be an opportunity to discuss the importance of developing a more proactive approach to long term learning. If a student really engages with and understands material as it is presented, she won’t need to stress (or at least not stress as much) before finals as she will already have a firm grasp of important concepts and their related details. While we are all guilty of cramming at one point or another in our academic careers, the short term gains of memorization for a big test cannot compare with the confidence and knowledge earned from steady, active engagement. With that in mind, here are a few small learning habits that will lead to big learning gains. 

Note taking

Both in class or at home, taking well organized notes offers endless benefits. Whether a student chooses to create an outline, take two-column or Cornell notes, or create a graphical representation of big ideas and their related details, the key to a useful set of notes is structure. They must clearly represent the hierarchy of details for a given topic - big ideas and their related details, key words or figures and their meaning and importance. In addition, notes shouldn’t be overly wordy; students should learn to use symbols and abbreviations, and write in phrases as opposed to complete sentences. Not only will this help students engage more deeply with the material as they are listening and reading, a good set of notes will also serve as an excellent study guide as well. They should be reviewed regularly and utilized as a central part of the test preparation process. 

Annotation

Active reading was the theme of last month’s posts for a reason! Just like note taking, annotations promote multi-sensory engagement and help students create a road map of sorts to navigate a text and their thoughts about it more easily.  A test on an unmarked book can feel impossible to prepare for, and finding information to add to a study guide from a noteless textbook often requires extensive rereading; however, a well annotated text solves both of those problems, plus the material it contains will be better understood thanks to an efficient and effective initial read. 

Mixed review

Most students have to take both formative and summative assessments; while the former are more like quizzes or unit tests, the latter come at the end of a semester or year and assess a student’s mastery of all material covered in the class. It is also worth noting that even formative assessments take on summative characteristics as topics covered in previous units are considered to be learned material and thus fair game to include on a quiz or test. When it comes to knowledge, especially with things like formulas or vocabulary, “use it or lose it” could not ring more true. That is why students either need to either be sure to generalize and apply their knowledge (think: using new vocabulary in writing, actively making connections between learned concepts and new material), or actively review their notes and/or study materials on a regular basis. Consistently finding just a little bit of time to engage with material this way will make a summative exam so much less intimidating. 

A World of Languages

Growing up in the United States, it can be easy to forget that billions of people in the world speak no English at all. But with the World Cup in full swing, the diversity of our planet’s inhabitants is more visible than usual. Beyond opening up new avenues of communication, what are the benefits of learning another language?

Mastering a language can have powerful neural effects. Studies have suggested that students who master a second language also show increased cognitive control overall, which could lead to improved focus and executive function (e.g. Bak et al.,  Anderson et al.). Since language learning, even more than most other learning, requires daily habits of practice and different modes of study to be effective, it is also a great space for practicing the skills and tools that will empower students across the curriculum. 

Elements of many languages will also improve a student’s understanding of English, for at least two reasons. First, since many commonly learned languages share etymological roots with English, which blends Germanic and Latinate ancestry, learning vocabulary in a new language can simultaneously strengthen vocabulary in a student’s native tongue. Second, the process of learning a new language requires students to think more explicitly about grammar -- the parts of a sentence, verb/pronoun agreement, direct and indirect objects -- in a way that can improve their written and spoken English as well. This new understanding of the mechanics of grammar is part of the reason why students who learn one foreign language are able to add another much more easily. 

There are many digital platforms for language learners to explore, and the all-important element of interaction in the chosen language is already often available remotely. Tutors can guide students through a curriculum while making explicit the grammar and executive function skills they should be picking up along the way. Adding some form of challenge and/or incentive structure can make the experience both fun and effective, as students learn to describe and navigate the world around them through an entirely new linguistic framework. 

Learning Vocabulary

Vocabulary sometimes gets a bad rap—and with good reason. Historically, students learned vocabulary by memorizing the spelling and definitions of long lists of words. Their teacher would quiz them on it, then they would usually never use those words again. But when it’s done right, vocabulary instruction can be an instrumental part of a student’s journey toward reading mastery. So what are the components of good vocabulary instruction and why do they matter?

Orthographic Mapping

We’ve been over orthographic mapping before, but here’s a quick refresher. Orthographic mapping is the process by which students match the sounds in words to the symbols that represent those sounds. Instead of memorizing the spelling of long lists of words, the most efficient way to actually learn new words is through repeated decoding. Experts agree that it takes most neurotypical readers 1-4 times to solidify words into memory in this way. Once the spelling of a word has been solidified, the student can recall that spelling when needed.

Affixes and Root Words

Once students understand that most words consist of parts (like affixes), it becomes much easier for them to learn to segment those words. The most efficient approach to learning the meaning of multisyllabic words is to first learn the meaning of common prefixes and suffixes. Students then use the meaning of these short chunks to deduce the meaning of the larger words in which they appear. This takes far less time and effort than memorizing spellings and meanings of entire multisyllabic words in isolation.

Book Embedded Vocabulary Instruction

When students learn new vocabulary, the best way to teach it is through context. Book embedded vocabulary instruction is a strategy in which teachers strategically select targeted vocabulary words from a text before students read it. Teachers choose words that students are less likely to know and that are important to their understanding of the text. Before reading, students preview the vocabulary words, including a student-friendly definition and some examples. Then they immediately hear or see them in the context of the reading, where they are able to further deepen their understanding of the words based on the context in which they appear.

Multi-sensory Vocabulary Instruction

There are vocabulary words that inevitably need to be taught explicitly, such as domain-specific words in Math or Science. The most effective ways to teach these words is through a multisensory approach. Merely presenting the word with a definition is not enough. In order to gain a thorough understanding of any new vocabulary words, students need examples, anecdotes, visuals, and plenty of opportunity for practice. This could mean using the word in writing or actually applying the word to a process or practice. 

When students are able to learn and interact with new vocabulary words through frequent and dynamic activities like the ones listed above, they are most likely to make the greatest gains in literacy.

Why do we study History?

There are a thousand and one reasons to study history. You have probably heard the argument that learning about the past can help us to better understand the present and make more informed decisions about the future. History can also help us to understand the human experience, to see how people have dealt with similar challenges in the past, and to appreciate the diversity of cultures and perspectives. Additionally, the strange (and strangely familiar) elements in history can simply be interesting and enjoyable to discover!

There are many different ways to study history that go far beyond your history class. Some people dig deep into history by reading books or articles, since the main way we record information as a society is in text. Others prefer to visit historical sites themselves, or to listen to lectures. Some people study history in order to become historians, while others do it simply for personal interest. No matter why you choose to study history, there are many benefits to be gained from doing so.

While most people who learn about history may end up going on to pursue other things, a select few will become professional historians. This is a noble profession that can be very rewarding. Historians help to preserve our collective memory and to keep us informed about the past. They also help to make the past accessible to everyone, through books, articles, lectures, and tours. Historians might collaborate with museum curators to shape the exhibits that the public will see. They can also conduct original research to uncover new information that changes the way we think about the past.

Other people study history for personal interest. This is a great way to learn about past civilizations and to satisfy your curiosity. It can also be a way to connect with your family history. If you are interested in studying history for personal interest, there are many resources available to you beyond your school curriculum. You can visit historical sites and museums, read books or articles, listen to lectures, or take online classes.

Whether you study history to become a historian or simply for personal interest, the subject offers a wealth of knowledge for everyone. If you’re someone who is primarily interested in science, consider learning more about the history of a technology that fascinates you, or studying the biographies of famous inventors. If you’re a musician, delve into the history of your favorite genre, tracing back the influences of your favorite artists over time. One of the most remarkable things about human civilization is its collective, additive nature; we learn from the experiments of our forebears, both successful and less so, in order to build a future together. So think about that next time you’re sitting in history class, wondering why you need to know about the Treaty of Versailles!

Building Skills Away From School

Children are sponges. Their growing brains have a remarkable capacity to soak in new knowledge, whether they are sitting in a classroom or hanging out at home. Parents intuitively understand that learning doesn’t begin and end in school—so how can they best support student skill development at home? Let’s consider some of the skills you can introduce or sharpen away away from the classroom.

1. Digital Literacy

Some skills are universal. They apply to virtually every subject area, and to students' personal lives as well as academics. Living in the technology-heavy 21st century means that students need to become fluent in digital literacy. This means developing a wide range of skills, all of which have to do with technology. From being able to create digital materials, to evaluating the validity of an article, digital literacy refers to one’s ability to use technology to interact and communicate.

2. Mindfulness

One of the most useful universal skills for anyone is mindfulness. Mindfulness is related to metacognition, or a person’s ability to think about what and how they think. Mindfulness, however, is more involved than metacognition. When someone is being mindful, they are fully aware of what they are doing in the present moment and why. They are able to look at situations objectively and with a clear head, and can avoid becoming overly reactive or emotional. It sounds simple, but it’s surprisingly difficult even for many adults. The more students can practice mindfulness, the stronger they’ll be at self-regulating, avoiding stress, and having healthy and positive day-to-day interactions with others. Guided mindfulness meditations are a great way to begin building this skill.

3. Life Skills

Don’t underestimate the importance of simple life skills like cooking, managing money, and having a basic knowledge of first aid. As schools place more emphasis on reading, writing, math, and technological fluency (all of which are vitally important, we don’t deny it!), students are starting to lose much of their foundational knowledge of things like balanced eating and financial literacy. Take it back to basics at home by helping your child build some of these skills he or she may be lacking.

4. STEM Learning

STEM stands for Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math; many schools integrate these four sought-after subjects (some places now offer STEAM classes, which also integrate the Arts). The NASA website has a great resource for at-home STEM exploration, which any "left-brained" thinker will love.

5. Encourage creativity by helping students think outside the box

“Thinking outside the box,” or the ability to problem-solve using creativity and critical thinking, isn’t something students learn easily. There aren’t any one-off lessons that will instantly turn a child into a critical thinker. But there are ways we can help students to build those skills over time. Encourage independent play. Set your children up with projects, even if it just means giving them a pile of clean recyclables and challenging them to build something. Most importantly, be careful how you respond to the way your child approaches a task. We are often quick to correct our children when they “color outside the lines,” both literally and figuratively. Just because children don’t execute a task the way we expect them to doesn’t mean they are doing it “wrong.” Be careful what you correct. Those times when children approach a task differently are often the times they grow the most cognitively!

6. Prioritize play (looks different at different ages and grades)

Everyone knows that play is important for all ages. But not all play is created equal! Educational play looks very different for a preschooler than it does for a high schooler, but both are equally beneficial. Playing video games is not going to be as useful for a kid's brain as playing a game that requires strategy and organization. At the same time, not all video games are bad! It’s important that some of your child’s downtime be spent engaged in educational “play," but be proactive in monitoring and guiding what that play looks like.

7. Don't double dose "dry" academics

One of the best-intentioned but least productive ways to support kids with their learning is to just make them do more of what they already find boring. This is not going to make them learn it any faster or any better, and is more likely to actually frustrate them more! Instead, if there are subjects that your child is either struggling with or dislikes, try to help them find a "way in." If your child hates math but loves sports, take their math work outside and play a game of math soccer. Or change all their word problems to be sports-related. Supporting academics at home should be about piquing interest and fueling curiosity, not piling on the work!

The Homework Debate

Homework remains a hot-button issue. The science is inconclusive—predictably, some studies demonstrate a link between homework completion and higher test scores. However, other studies found no significant link between performance and homework completion, which suggests there’s more nuance to the story. At any rate, you probably didn’t need experts to tell you that homework is a contentious issue—one evening of persuading a recalcitrant student to do their work is all the convincing most of us need. 

Quality Matters

The truth is that not all homework is created equal. Teachers may assign homework for a variety of reasons. Good reasons for homework include reinforcing a skill students practiced in class, preparing students for an upcoming lesson (i.e. “flipping the classroom”), and allowing students choice as they apply skills in innovative ways. Problematic reasons for homework include simple compliance measures and the sense that this is what is expected of teachers. Each homework assignment should have a clear rationale and reinforce skills that were already introduced in class. 

The Most Important Type of Homework

Some schools, particularly elementary schools, have already made homework optional or eliminated it altogether. While well-intentioned, this decision may leave families in a bind: how can families create an academic environment at home without painstakingly creating the resources students might have traditionally received in the past? Luckily, it's easier than one might think. Regular reading at home is one of the most effective activities for reinforcing literacy skills.

Exposure to a wide variety of texts that students find inherently interesting will reinforce the reading skills they practice in school throughout their subjects. Ideally, students would read texts in their zone of proximal development (books that present a slight challenge and therefore grow their reading muscles), but any reading will do! Reading at home has the added benefit of involving the family in the academic conversation. Consider facilitating a brief conversation daily so that everyone in the family can share something exciting they read that day. 

The Bottom Line

If homework remains a part of your school’s culture, look for signs that it is tied to the curriculum and provides your child an opportunity for successful engagement rather than a disheartening challenge. If you feel your child's homework may be purposeless, always speak to her teacher first. There may be purpose in it that you aren't aware of! And if your child is struggling unnecessarily, make sure his teacher knows that as well. They might be able to help by altering the assignment, or giving you the tools to help from home. In all cases, creating a reading culture at home will reinforce good academic habits and encourage a love for learning that can last a lifetime.

Working Smarter (Part 2)

Continuing on from our last post’s breakdown of the reasons that students frequently opt for relatively ineffective study methods, today we will outline a few research-backed learning strategies that any student can adopt instead. So far, we introduced one study reporting that student comprehension dramatically increased (an 86% bump) when they created their own summary of lecture slides, rather than just reviewing the original slides. Understanding why that increase is so significant helps illuminate other, similar strategies that students should employ. 

The key to the success of summarizing, and of each of the below strategies, is that learning that lasts requires some form of active cognitive resistance. In other words, you have to give your brain something to actively do with the content, not just skimming the surface by reading it off a page. Reorganizing the information, picking out the main ideas and articulating it in your own words, causes your brain to integrate that knowledge into its preexisting schema. These strategies all share a common theme—that is, meaningful engagement with the material—and cover a variety of modalities to suit different learning styles. It’s also worth noting that combining modalities by using more than one strategy in combination will only help students increase their understanding and retention. 

Better study strategies:

• Ask Questions: 

  • Students should be encouraged not just to engage with comprehension questions in a textbook, but to write their own. According to Mirjam Ebersbach (2020), “students who studied a lesson and then wrote their own questions outperformed students who simply restudied the material by 33 percent.” It’s also a great way for students to go about predicting what they might be asked on test day, giving structure to their studying. The best will go beyond yes/no or fill-in-the-blank-with-facts type questions, to get at the significant theme or takeaway and make connections to earlier material. Students should aim to start their questions with “Explain/why/how/to what extent” etc, and teachers can provide a list of such question starters at the beginning of the year.

• Create visual representations: 

  • Concept maps and graphic organizers are a powerful way to stimulate learning, since they encourage students to create categories, (literally) draw connections, and put their thoughts in order. The type of schematic macrostructure these visual representations create is significantly more effective than note-taking in an undefined list structure. 

• Draw your work: 

  • Relatedly, drawing is a remarkably powerful way to combine modalities and increase retention. According to a study from Myra Fernandes, students are twice as likely to remember vocabulary words they draw. That’s because drawing brings together visual memory (what did it look like), semantic memory (what did it mean), and kinesthetic memory (what did it feel like to draw). And you don’t have to draw well to generate this positive outcome! Just draw. 

• Teachers learn best: 

  • Another way to ensure that students will meaningfully engage with the material is to give them a teaching role. This role might draw on other strategies as well by requiring them to summarize, to create visual representations, and to generate questions. Teachers can institute a “three before me” rule, encouraging students to seek help from three peers before coming to a teacher, or use “think-pair-share” to have students work together to understand an issue and then teach it to the class. Jigsaw groups are another innovative option—students are each given information about one aspect of a new concept, and then they discuss their area with the group to assemble the ‘puzzle.’